Languages of Instruction and Language Policies - a Synthesis of Research
In preparation for the Pan-African conference on Problems and Perspectives of the Use of African Languages in Education (Accra, 26 - 30 August, 1996), ADEA’s Working Group on Education Research and Policy Analysis commissioned three studies to be carried out by African academics. These studies formed the basis of a background paper entitled A Synopsis of Research Findings on Languages of Instruction and their Policy Implications for Education in Africa, which is outlined in this article.
A Synopsis of Research Findings on Languages of Instruction and their Policy Implications for Education in Africa is about policies which deal with languages of instruction. The study draws on the experience of six African countries (Botswana, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania) and other places in the world.
Part one describes the complex socio-linguistic context affecting most African countries. It also touches on the ideological, educational and economic factors that have maintained the controversy over national languages and made policy-making more difficult.
Part two covers: (i) the state of research on the issue of languages of instruction and the correlation between language of education and academic success, and (ii) an in-depth analysis of the policies adopted by the six African countries under study and their implementation experiences.
Languages of instruction and school outcomes - the state of research
Linguists and educational psychologists agree that the use of the mother tongue as the language of instruction in the early years of education has proven advantages, especially where the development of cognitive faculties is concerned. Conversely, it has been demonstrated that classroom use of a language which is not the language already spoken by the child, results in cognitive and pedagogical difficulties.
Research in Africa
Among the most conclusive studies carried out in Africa to prove this is the case of Nigeria’s national policy on mother-tongue literacy and the experimental project carried out in 1970 in the Ife region. The project’s purpose was to test the use of maternal languages in education during the first six years of primary school. Despite initial doubts, the evaluation of the pilot schools and comparisons between them and other Nigerian schools were very positive. The students in the Ife project scored higher than their counterparts in the regular schools both academically and cognitively. Furthermore, students who were taught in Yoruba for the first six years of primary school were no less skilled in English than those who were taught in English throughout the last three years of primary school. According to the study, the advantages of teaching children in their maternal language go beyond academic success to include cultural, emotional, cognitive and socio-psychological benefits.
In Mali, a similar evaluation of cognitive benefits for students in mother-tongue education projects was carried out in 1985. The study followed 154 students from experimental schools and 340 students from French-speaking schools starting at the same level (first grade) over 6 years. Forty-eight percent of the children in experimental schools finished their studies without repeating a single year, as compared to only 7% of the students in francophone schools. Although other factors may have contributed to the success of the pilot schools, the study proves that the use of maternal languages in education is an important factor in academic success.
In South Africa(1), a bilingual transition program known as the Threshold project was studied in 1990. In the bilingual program, the students’ mother tongue was replaced by English in the third year of primary school. The principal conclusion of this study was that bilingual programs in which a language other than the students’ mother tongue is used before a certain age or a certain 'cognitive level' is achieved are not likely to be successful.
In Tanzania(2), research on the secondary cycle demonstrated the superiority of teaching in Swahili rather than English for the development of cognitive functions. It was noted, for instance, that when students were asked a question in English, the answer was often incoherent and irrelevant, showing lack of understanding of the question and/or inability to reply in English. When the same question was asked in Swahili, students gave a relevant and articulate answer .
Experiments in Great Britain and the United States
The issue of which language to teach in is not specific to Africa. Useful lessons can be learned from the experiences of other countries, even though the context (and hence the degree of student motivation) differs.
Both Great Britain and the United States have experienced a large influx of immigrants from all over the world. With immigration comes the issue of how best to achieve cultural and linguistic integration of the various ethnic groups into the social fabric.
Initially, both Britain and the United States chose total English immersion as a means of facilitating the integration of immigrant children. However, by the 1980s, the flaws in the immersion theory became evident and the academic performance of immigrant children became a real concern(3).
From 1978 to 1981, the University of Bradford in Great Britain observed the effects of a yearly bilingual program on five-year-old native Punjabi (an Indian language) speakers. A control group using only English scored much lower than children who were taught partly in Punjabi and partly in English. Similar results were obtained with Italian-speaking children(4). Linguists have demonstrated that language and thought are inextricably interwoven and that for their cognitive development all children need a language on which to pin and develop their thoughts(5).
In the United States, the Center for Minority Education and Research of the University of California carried out one of the most comprehensive longitudinal studies of bilingual education programs to date (1981-1991). The object of the study was to determine whether teaching Spanish-speaking students (who have limited English proficiency) mostly in English or in combination with Spanish, enables them to “catch up” with their native English-speaking peers in basic skills (English, language arts, and math). Students in 51 schools across five states were sampled. The study looked at three types of programs: English Immersion (almost all teaching is in English), Early-Exit Bilingual (less than forty minutes of instruction in the mother tongue per day, for no more than two to three years), and Late-Exit Bilingual (instruction in the home language represents 40 to 50% of the daily schedule up to grade four). The study came to the following conclusions:
- The students’ mother tongue is the most effective language of instruction.
- Rapid transition to classes taught only in the students’ second language does not allow for satisfactory development of the students’ linguistic and cognitive abilities.
- The second language can be taught effectively if half of the students’ classes are taught in that language.
- A bilingual/multilingual program, integrated into the regular curriculum, gives the best results.
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It is difficult to determine the exact degree of importance of first language teaching for academic success. Other elements are also important, such as the quality of the teachers and educational material, the curriculum, and the teaching methods used. However, research conducted worldwide confirms that from a pedagogical standpoint it is better, all other things being equal, to teach children in their mother tongue. Although this principle is increasingly gaining the recognition of policy-makers, prohibiting factors (linguistic diversity, technical problems, costs) and the problem of implementation remain.
Analysis of policy experiences in six African countries
Classroom language policies were analyzed in six African countries (Botswana, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, South Africa and Tanzania). The educational, linguistic, and political contexts of the countries and their linguistic choices were described.
Determining factors for successful policy implementation
Where policy implementation is concerned, the studies brought to light two main factors that determine the successful implementation of linguistic policies: the need to set clear objectives and to create an environment that promotes successful implementation.
The need to set clear objectives
The various functions the chosen language (or languages) must fulfill need to be clearly defined. Also, policy objectives must be well publicized along with clear instructions as to when, how and by whom policy is to be enforced.
Development of a suitable environment - the role of linguistic planning
Implementation activities must be carefully planned. Linguistic planning covers two categories of activities: activities intended to define the functions a language (or languages) should fulfill in the nation; and activities intended to modify the language (structure, spelling, vocabulary, etc.) so that it meets the requirements of the functions it is assigned.
The second category of activities is an essential factor for successful implementation of language policies. The cases of Kenya and Tanzania clearly illustrate this point. In Tanzania, the policy on Swahili was implemented by a large number of organizations responsible for precise functions. (7)
In Kenya (8), however, precision was lacking where mobilization and planning were concerned. Insufficient planning led to the failure of the 'language zone' policy in 1976, which was replaced de facto by the policy developed by an official committee in 1964. English is used more and more as a teaching language throughout the educational system. Swahili is taught as a core subject, but the promotion of vernacular languages as teaching languages has lost ground (9).
The creation of implementation organizations goes hand in hand with the development of the publishing industry. For example, in Mali, computer-assisted publishing has facilitated the production of affordable local teaching material.(10)
Preventing technical problems
The most common technical problems encountered in policy implementation are inadequate technical vocabulary in the teaching language, complex syntax in textbooks, mediocre textbook quality and inappropriateness, and obsolete teaching methods.
Problems such as overly loose interpretation of policies or rejection of the language chosen for teaching can be avoided when objectives are clearly defined and careful linguistic planning is carried out carefully.
Based on the reference document distributed at the Pan-African Seminar on the Problems and Prospects of the Use of African Languages in Education (Accra, 26-30 August 1996) entitled Synopsis of Research Findings on Languages of Instruction and their Implications for Education Policies in Africa
by Okoth Okombo and Casimir M. Rubgumya
Footnotes
(1) Akinnaso, F.N. (1993). Ç Policy and Experiment in Mother-Tongue Literacy in Nigeria È. International Review of Education, Vol. 39 No. 4.
(2) Luckett, Kathy (1994). Ç National Additive Bilingualism: Towards a Language Plan for South African Education È. In Southern African Journal of Applied Language Studies, Vol.2, No.1.
(3) Mlama, P. & Materu, M. (1978). Haja ya kutumia Kiswahili kama Lugha ya Kufundishia katika Elimuya Juu. Dar es Salaam: BAKITA.
(4) Klein, Gillian (1994) Ç The Need to Maintain Mother Tongues È. In Die Suid-Afrikaan; Special Issue on Education, 1994.
(5) Cummins, James (1979b). Ç Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency, Linguistic Interdependence, the Optimal Age Question and Some Other Matters È. In Working Papers in Bilingualism, No. 19.
(6) Ramirez, David. 1994. Ç Recipe For SuccessÈ. In Bua! Vol.9 No.3.
(7) Bamgbose, Ayo (1991). Language and the Nation: the Language Question in Sub-Saharan Africa. International African Institute. Edinburgh University Press.
(8) Okombo, Okoth D.(1996).What Research Tells Us About Language of Instruction in Kenya. A preliminary Report Submitted to International Development Research Centre, Nairobi.
(9) Hutchison, J. (1995). The Politics of Educational Publishing in Francophone Africa: 1944-94.
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